Doping In Semiconductors.....

Doping is the process of adding impurities in semiconductor with the intent of modulating (changing or controlling ) its electrical properties. The impurities are dependent upon the type of semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductors are referred to as extrinsic. A semiconductor doped to such high levels that it acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor is referred to as degenerate.

Two of the most important materials silicon can be doped with, are boron (3 valence electrons = 3-valent) and phosphorus (5 valence electrons = 5-valent). Other materials are aluminum, indium (3-valent) and arsenic, antimony (5-valent).

The dopant is integrated into the lattice structure of the semiconductor crystal, the number of outer electrons define the type of doping. Elements with 3 valence electrons are used for p-type doping, 5-valued elements for n-doping. The conductivity of a deliberately contaminated silicon crystal can be increased by a factor of 10^6.

Through the introduction of a dopant with five outer electrons, in n-doped semiconductors there is an electron in the crystal which is not bound and therefore can be moved with relatively little energy into the conduction band. Thus in n-doped semiconductors one finds a donator energy level near the conduction band edge, the band gap to overcome is very small.

Analog, through introduction of a 3-valent dopant in a semiconductor, a hole is available, which may be already occupied at low-energy by an electron from the valence band of the silicon. For p-doped semiconductors one finds an acceptor energy level near the valence band.

RF Module Pin Outs..

An RF module (radio frequency module) is a (usually) small electronic device used to transmit and/or receive radio signals between two devices. In an embedded system it is often desirable to communicate with another device wirelessly. This wireless communication may be accomplished through optical communication or through Radio Frequency (RF) communication. For many applications the medium of choice is RF since it does not require line of sight. RF communications incorporate a transmitter and/or receiver.

RF modules are most often used in medium and low volume products for consumer applications such as garage door openers, wireless alarm systems, industrial remote controls, smart sensor applications, and wireless home automation systems. They are sometimes used to replace older infrared communication designs as they have the advantage of not requiring line-of-sight operation.

Several carrier frequencies are commonly used in commercially-available RF modules, including those in the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands such as 433.92 MHz, 315 MHz, 868 MHz, 915 MHz, and 2400 MHz These frequencies are used because of national and international regulations governing the use of radio for communication.

Power Factor...

In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load, to the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number between -1 and 1. Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power. A negative power factor occurs when the device which is normally the load generates power which then flows back towards the device which is normally considered the generator.

In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor.

Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment.

Save A Wet Phone.....

       How To Save A Wet Phone.....

Did your smartphone got soaked in the rain ? Or did you dropped it in the toilet or sink or some other type of liquid ?

Here is how to bring it back to life :

Switch It Off Quick :
Switch off the handset immediately. Then, quickly place it on some paper towels or soft cloth. Remove the battery, the sim, memory card and gently dry those. Essentially, remove all add-on accessories, including headphones that cover ports and slots to expose them to air.

Check Your Battery Sticker :
Handset warranties do not cover water damage. To find out if the phone is water damaged, check your battery and the battery receptacle. Manufacturers place tiny stickers that are usually white, but change to pink or red on contact with moisture inside the phones.

Wipe Your Phone Thoroughly :Wipe your device thoroughly with a soft cloth. If possible , use a small vacuum cleaner to draw the water out of the phone. Be careful not to hold the vacuum too close to the device. Do not use a hair dryer.

Keep The Phone Rice :
Place your handset in a dry plastic bag or an air-tight container with a desiccant such as silica gel (often found with new shoes and electronics). You can also purchase 5 grams sachets online and from electronic stores. Keep a stash handy this monsoon. Alternatively, bury the phone in a jar or bag of uncooked rice overnight. Rice draws out the moisture.

Blow Dry :
Air is obviously helpful, but don’t leave the gadget under the fan in an open room. Also, do not use a hair dryer on it. Hot or unpurified air isn't good for your phone. Instead, hold the wet device in front of the vent of your air conditioner for a few minutes.

Wait For 24 Hours :
Wait for at least 24 hours or longer. Check that your device ports, compartments and crevices are clean and look dry. Power up the device. If your phone does not boot, remove the battery and head to your nearest service center.

Li-Fi technology

       What is Li-Fi and How It Works....

Li-Fi, or Light Fidelity, is a technology, that can be a complement of RF communication (Wi-Fi or Cellular network), or a replacement in contexts of data broadcasting. Li-Fi, like Wi-Fi, is the high speed, bidirectional and fully networked subset of visible light communications (VLC). It is wireless and uses visible light communication (instead of radio frequency waves), that is part of the Optical Wireless Communications technologies, which carries much more information, and has been proposed as a solution to the RF-bandwidth limitations.

It is a 5G visible light communication system that uses light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a medium to deliver networked, mobile, high-speed communication in a similar manner as Wi-Fi. Li-Fi could lead to the Internet of Things, which is everything electronic being connected to the internet, with the LED lights on the electronics being used as Li-Fi internet access points.[4] The Li-Fi market is projected to have a compound annual growth rate of 82% from 2013 to 2018 and to be worth over $6 billion per year by 2018.

Visible light communications (VLC) works by switching bulbs on and off within nanoseconds, which is too quickly to be noticed by the human eye. Although Li-Fi bulbs would have to be kept on to transmit data, the bulbs could be dimmed to the point that they were not visible to humans and yet still functional. The light waves cannot penetrate walls which makes a much shorter range, though more secure from hacking, relative to Wi-Fi.[8][9] Direct line of sight isn't necessary for Li-Fi to transmit signal and light reflected off of the walls can achieve 70 Mbit/s.

Li-Fi has the advantage of being able to be used in electromagnetic sensitive areas such as in aircraft cabins, hospitals and nuclear power plants [citation needed] without causing electromagnetic interference. Both Wi-Fi and Li-Fi transmit data over the electromagnetic spectrum, but whereas Wi-Fi utilises radio waves, Li-Fi uses visible light. While the US Federal Communications Commission has warned of a potential spectrum crisis because Wi-Fi is close to full capacity, Li-Fi has almost no limitations on capacity.

The visible light spectrum is 10,000 times larger than the entire radio frequency spectrum. Researchers have reached data rates of over 10 Gbit/s, which is more than 250 times faster than superfast broadband. Li-Fi is expected to be ten times cheaper than Wi-Fi. Short range, low reliability and high installation costs are the potential downsides.

5G Mobile Technology

                                       5G Mobile Technology

5G technologies will change the way most high bandwidth users access their phones. With 5G pushed over a VOIP-enabled device, people will experience a level of call volume and data transmission never experienced before.5G technology is offering the services in Product Engineering, Documentation, supporting electronic transactions (e-Payments, e transactions) etc. As the customer becomes more and more aware of the mobile phone technology, he or she will look for a decent package all together, including all the advanced features a cellular phone can have. Hence the search for new technology is always the main motive of the leading cell phone giants to out innovate their competitors. The ultimate goal of 5G is to design a real wireless world that is free from obstacles of the earlier generations. This requires an integration of networks. 5G Technology stands for 5th Generation Mobile technology. 5G technology has changed the means to use cell phones within very high bandwidth. 5G is a packet switched wireless system with wide area coverage and high throughput. 5G wireless uses OFDM and millimeter wireless that enables data rate of 20 mbps and frequency band of 2-8 GHz. 5G is going to be a packed based network . The 5G communication system is envisioned as the real wireless network, capable of supporting wireless World Wide Web (wwww) applications in 2010 to 2015 time frame. There are two views of 5G systems: evolutionary and revolutionary. In the evolutionary view the 5G (or beyond 4G) systems will be capable of supporting wwww allowing a highly flexible network such as a Dynamic Adhoc Wireless Network (DAWN). In this view advanced technologies including intelligent antenna and flexible modulation are keys to optimize the adhoc wireless networks. In revolutionary view 5G systems should be an intelligent technology capable of interconnecting the entire world without limits. An example application could be a robot with built-in wireless communication with artificial intelligence. User never experienced ever before such a high value technology. The 5G technologies include all type of advanced features which makes 5G technology most powerful and in huge demand in near future. Amazing isn’t it such a huge collection of technology being integrated into a small device. The 5G technology provides the mobile phone users more features and efficiency than the 1000 lunar module. A user of mobile phone can easily hook their 5G technology gadget with laptops or tablets to acquire broadband internet connectivity. Up till now following features of the 5G technology have come to surface- High resolution is offered by 5G for extreme mobile users, it also offers bidirectional huge bandwidth.- 5G technology’s excellent quality service is based on Policy in order to evade errors.- It provides transporter class type gateway that has unequalled steadiness.- The 5G technology’s billing interface is highly advanced making it efficient and appealing.- It offers huge quantity of broadcasting data, which is in Giga Bytes, sustaining more than 60,000 connections.- This technology also provides remote diagnostic feature.- Provides up to 25 megabytes per second connectivity. Also it supports the private virtual networks.

KEY CONCEPTS OF 5G

The key concepts discussing 5G and beyond 4G wireless communications are:

1) Real wireless world with no more limitation with access and zone issues.

2) Wearable devices with AI capabilities.

3) Internet protocol version 6(IPv6), where a visiting care-of mobile IP address is assigned according to Location and connected network.

4) One unified global standard.

5) Pervasive networks providing ubiquitous computing: The user can simultaneously be connected to several wireless access technologies and seamlessly move between them These access technologies can be a 2.5G, 3G, 4G or 5G mobile networks, Wi-Fi, WPAN or any other future access technology. In 5G, the concept may be further developed into multiple concurrent data transfer paths.

6) Cognitive radio technology, also known as smart radio: allowing different radio technologies to share the same spectrum efficiently by adaptively finding unused spectrum and adapting the transmission scheme to the requirements of the technologies currently sharing the spectrum. This dynamic radio resource management is achieved in a distributed fashion, and relies on software defined radio.

7) High altitude stratospheric platform station (HAPS) systems. The radio interface of 5G communication systems is suggested in a Korean research and development program to be based on beam division multiple access (BDMA) and group cooperative relay techniques.

FEATURES OF 5G NETWORKS TECHNOLOGY

1) 5G technology offer high resolution for crazy cell phone user and bi- directional large bandwidth shaping.

2) The advanced billing interfaces of 5G technology makes it more attractive and effective.

3) 5G technology also providing subscriber supervision tools for fast action.

4) The high quality services of 5G technology based on Policy to avoid error.

5) 5G technology is providing large broadcasting of data in Gigabit which supporting almost 65,000 connections.

6) 5G technology offer transporter class gateway with unparalleled consistency.

7) The traffic statistics by 5G technology makes it more accurate.

8) Through remote management offered by 5G technology a user can get better and fast solution.

9) The remote diagnostics also a great feature of 5G technology.

10) The 5G technology is providing up to 25 Mbps connectivity speed.

11) The 5G technology also support virtual private network.

12) The new 5G technology will take all delivery service out of business prospect

13) The uploading and downloading speed of 5G technology touching the peak.

14) The 5G technology network offering enhanced and available connectivity just about the world

APPLICATIONS

How could be it?

1) If you can able to feel yours kid stroke when she/he is in her mother’s wombs.

2) If you can able to charge your mobile using your own heartbeat.

3) If you can able to perceive your grandmother sugar level with your mobile.

4) If you can able to know the exact time of your child birth that too In Nano seconds.

5) If your mobile rings according to your mood.

6) If you can Vote from your mobile.

7) If you can get an alert from your mobile when some once opens your intelligent car.

8) If you can able to view your residence in your mobile when someone enters.

9) If you can able to locate your child when she/he is unfortunately missed.

10) If you can able to pay all your bills in a single payment with your mobile.

11) If you can able to sense Tsunami/earthquake before it occurs.

12) If you can able to visualize lively all planets and Universe.

13) If you can able to navigate a Train for which you are waiting.

14) If you can get the share value lively.

15) If you can lock your Laptop, car, Bike using your mobile when you forgot to do so.

16) If you’re mobile can share your work load.

17) If you’re mobile can identify the best server.

18) If you’re mobile can perform Radio resource management.

19) If your mobile can intimate you before the call drops.

20) If your mobile phone get cleaned by its own.

21) If you can able to fold your mobile as per your desire.

22) If you can able to expand your coverage using your mobile phones.

23) If you can able identify your stolen mobile with nanoseconds.

24) If you can able to access your office desktop by being at your bedroom.

.

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

5G HARDWARE

1) UWB Networks: higher bandwidth at low energy levels. This short-range radio technology is ideal for

Wireless personal area networks (WPANs). UWB complements existing longer range radio technologies – such as Wi-Fi,* WiMAX, and cellular wide area communications – that bring in data and communications from the outside world. UWB provides the needed cost-effective, power-efficient, high bandwidth solution for relaying data from host devices to devices in the immediate area (up to 10 meters or 30 feet).

2) Bandwidth: 4000 megabits per second, which is 400 times faster than today’s wireless networks.

3) Smart antennasa. Switched Beam Antennas: Switched Beam Antennas support radio positioning via Angle of Arrival (AOA) information collected from nearby devices. b. Adaptive Array Antennas: The use of adaptive antenna arrays is one area that shows promise for improving capacity of wireless systems and providing improved safety through position location capabilities. These arrays can be used for interference rejection through spatial _altering, position location through direction _ending measurements, and developing improved channel models through angle of arrival channel sounding measurements.

4) Multiplexing: CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) CDMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination with spread spectrum technology. Audio input is first digitized into binary elements. The frequency of the transmitted signal is then made to vary according to a defined pattern (code), so it can be intercepted only by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with the same code, so it follows exactly along with the transmitter frequency. There are trillions of possible frequency-sequencing codes, which enhance privacy and makes cloning difficult.

 5G SOFTWARE

1) 5G will be single unified standard of different wireless networks, including wireless technologies (e.g. IEEE 802.11), LAN/WAN/ PAN and WWWW, unified IP and seamless combination of broad band.

2) Software Defined Radio, Packet layer, implementation of packets, encryption, flexibility etc. ref: www.ijsret.org 

CONCEPTS FOR 5G MOBILE NETWORKS

The 5G terminals will have software defined radios and modulation schemes as well as new error-control schemes that can be downloaded from the Internet. The development is seen towards the user terminals as a focus of the 5G mobile networks. The terminals will have access to different wireless technologies at the same time and the terminal should be able to combine different flows from different technologies. The vertical handovers should be avoided, because they are not feasible in a case when there are many technologies and many operators and service providers. In 5G, each network will be responsible for handling user-mobility, while the terminal will make the final choice among different wireless/mobile access network providers for a given service. Such choice will be based on open intelligent middleware in the mobile phone.

5G MOBILE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Below figure shows the system model that proposes design of network architecture for 5G mobile systems, which is all-IP based model for wireless and mobile networks interoperability. The system consists of a user terminal (which has a crucial role in the new architecture) and a number of independent, autonomous radio access technologies. Within each of the terminals, each of the radio access technologies is seen as the IP link to the outside Internet world. However, there should be different radio interface for each Radio Access Technology (RAT) in the mobile terminal. For an example, if we want to have access to four different RATs, we need to have four different accesses – specific interfaces in the mobile terminal, and to have all of them active at the same time, with aim to have this architecture to be functional. Applications and servers somewhere on the Internet. Routing of packets should be carried out in accordance with established policies of the user.

Power line communication implementation for DC applications

     Power line communication implementation for DC applications

Power line communication (PLC) is a communication technology that sends data over existing power cables. This technology can send both power and data between PLC nodes in a half-duplex manner. Combining power and data over the same lines allows PLC technology to eliminate the need for additional wires to interconnect devices. PLC offers a cost-effective communication media for a wide range of applications in environments that otherwise might be too expensive to network. As a communications technology, PLC can be divided into two categories: Broadband PLC is appropriate for high-speed broadband network connections such as to the Internet. It generally operates at higher frequencies (1.8–250 MHz), high data rates (up to 100s of Mbps) and is used in shorter-range applications. Narrowband PLC is useful for applications requiring narrowband control or low-bandwidth data collection where low cost and high reliability are essential. It generally operates at lower frequencies (3–500 kHz), lower data rates (up to 100s of kbps), and has longer range (up to several kilometres), which can be extended using repeaters. Depending upon the underlying power line characteristic, PLC can be further classified as PLC over AC power lines and PLC over DC power lines. Many utilities around the world have chosen narrowband PLC over AC lines for their smart grid projects. By monitoring electricity usage based on time of day and even by device or application, utility companies can provide pricing structures that give consumers incentives to adjust their energy consumption, thus reducing peak-load and avoiding the need to construct new power plants. The popularity of PLC adoption in smart grid applications has led to significant focus on PLC over AC power lines. However, narrowband PLC over DC lines is also gaining ground in home networking, lighting and solar applications as well as in transportation vehicles (electronic controls in air planes, auto mobiles and trains). The use of PLC in these applications reduces wiring complexity, weight, and ultimately cost of communications. In this article we focus on the use of PLC over DC power lines and present a reference design that can help customers adopt PLC over DC power lines quickly and effectively. One common question asked by system integrators is how to compare PLC over DC versus low-power wireless technology. While both PLC over DC and low-power wireless do not require new wire installation, with PLC, the connection is maintained even underground, through walls, and around corners. The communication channel is owned by the operator or utility, so the risks of sharing bandwidth are eliminated. PLC has no line-of-sight limitation and is not affected by weather.